Career success? The differences are Black and White

Topic: Diversity

Publication: Journal of Vocational Behavior (online pre-publication)

Article: Evaluating career success of African American males: It’s what you know and who you are that matters.

Authors: Johnson, C. D. & Eby, L. T.

Reviewed by: Larry Martinez

Little research has specifically examined what makes African American males successful.  This research has been done with respect to Caucasian workers, but are the things that are related to success for Caucasians also related to success for African Americans?  Are there other things that might be related to success for African Americans in particular that has not been examined with respect to Caucasians?  These questions formed the basis of research by Johnson and Eby (in press).

Specifically, these authors examined four broad dimensions of characteristics that might be related to success for African Americans: human capital (e.g., education, work history, training), social capital (e.g., informal networks, professional associations, club memberships), individual differences (e.g., motivation, conscientiousness, ambition), and demographic attributes (e.g., marital status, age, skin tone).  In a sample of 247 African American males, these authors found that some characteristics that were related to success in Caucasians were also related for African Americans.  Specifically, human capital and demographic attributes were the most related, while social capital and individual differences were much less related. 

Are Whites’ Perceptions of Exclusion Driving Their Negative Reaction to Diversity Initiatives?

Topic: Diversity

Publication: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (MAY 2011)

Article: “What About Me? Perceptions of Exclusion and Whites’ Reactions to
Multiculturalism

Authors: Victoria C. Plaut, Flannery G. Garnett, Laura E. Buffardi, Jeffrey Sanchez-
Burks

Reviewed by: Mary Alice Crowe-Taylor

The support of White Americans is crucial for diversity efforts to be effective. The best model for designing diversity initiatives is the multiculturalism approach. This approach encourages the understanding and acceptance of different cultural backgrounds of
employees. It has been shown through research to be more effective than taking a color-blind approach (the other dominant framework). Color-blind programs ask participants to view everyone as the same, and don’t highlight or promote cultural differences.

Herein lies the problem that this research article is exploring: White
Americans are more likely to resist diversity initiatives based on multiculturalism
versus color-blindness. Why? This research suggests that their lack of support
for multiculturalism is due to perceptions of exclusion. How so? There is a basic,
psychological need to be included, to belong, and if multiculturalism is perceived
as “only for minorities” White Americans feel excluded. This perceived exclusion results
in “diversity resistance.”

So how did these researchers reach these conclusions? They conducted five studies
in simulated and actual work organizations that showed, first, that White Americans
do associate multiculturalism with exclusion. In the second study they found that this
association can be weakened by using subtle cuing (re: specifying both: inclusion of
all groups; and European Americans in wording of multiculturalism materials). A third
study examined the role that self-concept plays in employee reactions to diversity
initiatives. The extent to which multiculturalism fit respondents (using a Me/Not Me Self- association measure) was more important than actual group membership in prediction of support for diversity efforts. That is, feeling included was key.

Gender Bending Depends on Friends’ Intentions

Topic: Diversity

Publication: Journal of Vocational Behavior (In press)

Article: Trans-parency in the workplace: How the experiences of transsexual employees can be improved

Authors: Law, C. L., Martinez, L. R., Ruggs, E. N., Hebl, M. R., & Akers, E. 

Reviewed by: Larry Martinez

The demographic characteristics of the US workforce have been becoming more and more diverse in the past several decades.  In a world where differences are protected and often celebrated, many employees find themselves in close, daily proximity with people they wouldn’t normally hang around with.  This can lead to tense or awkward social interactions in an environment where everyone is supposed to be focused on their work.  Law and colleagues (in press) examined these sorts of interactions – and how to make them less awkward – in an especially rare sample of diverse employees: transsexuals. 

These authors looked at whether transsexual employees tend to disclose their gender identities at work, what predicts whether they do, and whether this disclosure is related to organizational outcomes.  They found that transsexuals who worked in organizations that were supportive of transsexual employees, who considered being a transsexual as a central part of their identities, were more accepting of their transsexual status, and who were more “out” to people outside of work were more likely to disclose in the workplace.  In addition, disclosure was related to more positive workplace outcomes including higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Perceived similarities make it easier for newbies to adjust. But how?...

Topic: Diversity, Work Environment, Culture, Creativity

Publication: Journal of Vocational Behavior (APR 2011)

Article: Perceived similarity, proactive adjustment, and organizational socialization

Authors: J. D. Kammeyer-Mueller, B. A. Livingston, & H. Liau

Reviewed by: Charleen Maher

Organizational newcomers carry the stress of adjusting to their new jobs, working with new people, and learning the ins and outs of a new organization. Previous research has shown that when organizational newcomers engage in proactive adjustment behaviors (e.g. feedback seeking, relationship building), they are more likely to be committed to their new organizations and are more likely to be accepted by their coworkers.

This study sought to find out if perceived similarity to one’s new work group leads to more proactive adjustment behaviors and, in turn, has an effect on important work outcomes (e.g. creative performance, organizational citizenship behaviors). The authors examined the following aspects of perceived similarity: surface-level (similarity in age, education, race, gender) and deep-level (similar work style).  So, what is the relationship between perceived similarity and proactive adjustment behaviors?

Perceived similarity in age, race, gender, and education predicted perceived similarity in work-style. Similarity in age actually decreased the chances that organizational newcomers would engage in proactive feedback seeking.  Similarity in education increased the likelihood that newcomers would socialize with coworkers. 

Thinking about age in employee engAGEment…

Topic: Job Attitudes, Diversity, Motivation

Publication: Journal of Organizational Behavior (JAN 2011)

Article: Predicting employee engagement in an age-diverse workforce.

Authors: J. B. James, S. McKechnie, & J. Swanberg

Reviewed by: Charleen Maher

A large portion of today’s working population consists of the Baby Boomer population. Although these individuals are becoming eligible for retirement, many remain employed for various reasons. As a result, research has picked up on the importance of examining job attitudes of older workers.

The present article examined differences in employee engagement among five age groups: emerging adults (age 24 and older), settling-in adults (25-39), prime-working years (40-54), approaching retirement (55-65), and retirement eligible (66 and older). Overall, the retirement eligible group reported the highest average engagement while the emerging adults reported the lowest average engagement.

The authors also examined job quality factors as predictors of engagement among each of the age groups. Supervisor support and recognition, schedule satisfaction (having flexibility and autonomy in one’s work schedule), and job clarity were significant predictors of employee engagement for all age groups. Specifically, supervisor support and recognition had the largest effect on employee engagement for the two older groups, approaching retirement and retirement-eligible.

To Satisfy or Maximize? Understanding the Needs of Older Workers

Topic:  Diversity, Work Environment

Publication:  Journal of Organizational Behavior (JAN 2011)

Article:  Profiles of mature job seekers: Connecting needs and desires to work characteristics

Authors:  Yoshie Nakai, Boin Chang, Andrea F. Snell, and Chris D. Fluckinger

Reviewer:  Kerrin George

With the difficult economy, organizations are facing the retention of an aging workforce that has unique needs, desires, and challenges.  In an effort to explain the work characteristics of interest to workers over 40, Nakai and colleagues (2011) examined and identified 3 clusters of workers based on how they evaluated several dimensions that describe why one desire’s work:  the Satisficers, the Free agents, and the Maximizers.  

Satisficers were demographically younger than the other groups, and this group was composed of more males and married individuals comparatively.  These workers are primarily driven by financial security and seek opportunities to earn money as a means to manage family demands.  Health benefits and remaining healthy were also a significant concern.  Life goals were less important for these workers and they were willing to change industries to meet their demands.    The authors suggest that these workers may be more likely to settle and sacrifice other aspects of work. 

Free agents were mostly female and unmarried mature workers, who were older than the satisficers.  This group favored part-time work and was more motivated by individual goals (i.e. health, learning opportunities, and work satisfaction), perhaps because they have less family or financial obligations (i.e. social security recipients, financial security). 

The Business Case: Benefits of Diversity Management Beyond High-Performance Work Systems

Topic: Diversity

Publication: Human Resource Management (NOV/DEC 2010)

Article:  The Impact Of Diversity And Equality Management On Firm Performance: Beyond High Performance Work Systems 

Authors: C. Armstrong, P. C. Flood, J. P. Guthrie, W. Liu, S. Maccurtain, and T.  Mkamwa

Reviewed By: Kerrin George

“What I need is the data, the evidence that diverse groups do better.”  Organizations may recognize the consequences of workplace discrimination, but when it comes to diversity management (e.g., practices that emphasize differences among employees as an asset if managed effectively), organizations need more convincing that the benefits will outweigh the costs. 

The advantages of high performance work systems (HPWS; i.e., integrated recruitment, selection, performance management, training and development practices) have robust effects on organizational performance beyond individual human resource practices.  However, effective diversity management is often considered a primary characteristic of high performing organizations.  Armstrong and colleagues (2010) investigated whether diversity and equality management systems (DEMS, e.g., diversity training, ensuring equal pay and promotion across all groups) would have additional benefits for organizational performance.  They found support that organizations that used HPWS had increased firm performance; however, those organizations that used DEMS or a combination of both systems demonstrated additional gains, such as increased productivity and innovation, and less voluntary turnover.

Are Muslim Employees Targets of Workplace Discrimination?

Topic: Culture, Diversity

Publication: Personnel Psychology (WINTER 2010)

Article:  An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward Muslim job applicants

Authors: E. B. King and A. S. Ahmad

Reviewed By:  Kerrin George

A recent New York Times article (Greenhouse, 2010) reported rising discrimination against Muslim employees at work related to the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 tragedy and the friction created over the building of an Islamic Center near the site.  Such discrimination ranges from overt attacks (e.g., calling Muslim employees terrorists) to preventing them from wearing religious garb or taking prayer breaks at work.   Although explicit religious discrimination in the workplace is illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the interpersonal experiences of Muslim Americans may still be affected by negative stereotypes of this group as “dangerous”. 

In two studies, King and Ahmad (2010) examined how religious discrimination towards Muslim Americans may manifest itself in the job application process, via in-person applications at a retail store and in hypothetical paper-based applications.  They compared the experiences of job applicants of different ethnicities dressed in traditional Muslim attire (e.g., hijab, abbaya) or not. While they found that there were no differences in whether these applicants experienced formal discrimination (e.g., recommended for a position, offered an interview, likelihood of being hired), applicants dressed in Muslim attire did experience more interpersonal discrimination (i.e., less helpfulness, less eye contact; or more attempts to end interactions, rudeness, hostility, etc.). 

Who Leads Diverse Teams to Less (More) Conflict?

Topic: Conflict, Diversity, Teams

Publication: Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (JAN 2011)

Article: When team members’ values differ: The moderating role of team leadership

Authors: K.J. Klein, A.P., Knight, J.C. Ziegert, B.C., Lim, and J.L., Saltz

Reviewed By: Benjamin Granger

The necessity of team-based work coupled with an increasingly diverse workforce makes team-based conflict not only possible, but likely.  A key question is what happens in teams when team members differ in their fundamental values.  Since individuals’ values shape their behaviors and beliefs about how others should behave (at work), value diversity among team members can be a bomb just waiting to explode. 

In theory, if team members hold very different beliefs and expectations about how they and others should behave, team conflict is likely to arise making vital team processes such as decision making and collaboration very difficult.  Ultimately, this can damage a team’s performance.  However, as Klein et al. (2011) find, the leadership style of team leaders plays an important role in determining how value diversity impacts team conflict.  More specifically, leaders with a task-focused leadership style (focus on defining roles and tasks and maintaining formal work standards) restrict the expression of team members’ values that can potentially cause team conflict while leaders with a person-focused leadership style (focus on expressing concern for each team member) exacerbate this problem.

In their study, teams high in value diversity (e.g., team members differ in their views about work ethic) experienced more conflict when leaders did not use a task-focused leadership style. 

With Age Comes Wisdom…And Better Job Attitudes

Topic: Diversity, Job Attitudes

Publication: Personnel Psychology (AUTUMN 2010)

Article: The relationships of age with job attitudes: A meta-analysis

Authors: T.W.H. Ng and D.C. Feldman

Reviewed By: Benjamin Granger

Today, more than half of the American workforce is between the ages of 40 and 75.  This trend, known as the ageing workforce, has raised a number of important organizational issues of late, including the association between employee age and attitudes about work.  Employees’ job attitudes are particularly important from an organization’s perspective because of their link to engagement and performance on the job.

Despite common stereotypes that older employees are less motivated and productive the younger employees, Ng and Feldman (2010) argue that older employees should have more favorable job attitudes because they are more likely to settle into jobs that they are satisfied with and fit well into.  The results of their recent meta-analysis generally support this hypothesis. 

Indeed, the results of Ng and Feldman’s study suggest that older workers tend to report higher job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and involvement in work.  They also tend to have higher levels of commitment to their organizations and identify more with their organizations than younger workers.